Table 3 Determinants of stunting in children aged 0–59 months
Background characteristics | Odd ratios of stunting (height for age < −2SD) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2006 | 2011 | 2016 | ||||
Household characteristics | Unadjusted (OR, P/ CI) | Adjusted (OR, P/ CI) | Unadjusted (OR, P/CI) | Adjusted (OR, P/CI) | Unadjusted (OR, P/CI) | Adjusted (OR, P/CI) |
Family size | 1.37** [1.16–1.62] | 1.15 [0.95–1.38] | 1.01 [0.86–1.40] | 0.87 [0.62–1.21] | 1.52** [1.22–1.90] | 1.39* [1.06–1.83] |
Headship of the households | ||||||
Male (R) | ||||||
Female | 1.09 [0.91–1.31] | 1.01 [0.82–1.24] | 0.90 [0.71–1.14] | 0.85 [0.64–1.14] | 0.95 [0.77–1.17] | 1.06 [0.84–1.35] |
Caste/ethnicity | ||||||
Dalit(R) | ||||||
Muslim | 1.00 [0.74–1.35] | 1.21 [0.82–1.80] | 0.50 [0.30–0.85] | 0.55 [0.27–1.14] | 0.94 [0.60–1.47] | 1.04 [0.61–1.78] |
Janajati | 0.63 [0.48–0.83] | 0.73 [0.53–0.99] | 0.76 [0.56–1.04] | 0.89 [0.61–1.29] | 0.75 [0.53–1.08] | 1.01 [0.69–1.47] |
Other Terai caste | 0.78 [0.59–1.03] | 0.96 [0.69–1.33] | 0.95 [0.63–1.43] | 1.56 [1.04–1.33] | 1.16 [0.81–1.66] | 1.18 [0.74–1.91] |
Brahmin/chhetri | 0.70 [0.57–0.89] | 0.94 [0.69–1.26] | 0.65 [0.51–0.85] | 0.80 [0.58–1.09] | 0.84 [0.60–1.17] | 1.08 [0.72–1.61] |
Other | 0.72 [0.35–1.50] | 0.80 [0.36–1.77] | 0.78 [0.48–1.29] | 0.96 [0.39–2.37] | 0.63 [0.37–1.05] | 0.60 [0.26–1.36] |
Wealth quintile | ||||||
Poorest (R) | ||||||
Second poorest | 0.76** [0.63–0.92] | 0.87 [0.65–1.18] | 0.66** [0.50–0.88] | 0.58** [0.39–0.87] | 0.65** [0.49–0.87] | 0.60** [0.43–0.85] |
Middle | 0.65** [0.51–0.82] | 0.84 [0.63–1.13] | 0.42** [0.30–0.57] | 0.45** [0.29–0.68] | 0.57** [0.42–0.77] | 0.51** [0.36–0.73] |
Second richest | 0.42** [0.32–0.54] | 0.59** [0.42–0.83] | 0.35** [0.25–0.48] | 0.30** [0.17–0.53] | 0.49** [0.37–0.66] | 0.56** [0.37–0.85] |
Richest | 0.28** [0.22–0.35] | 0.58* [0.38–0.88] | 0.27** [0.19–0.39] | 0.26** [0.12–0.54] | 0.20** [0.14–0.29] | 0.28** [0.16–0.49] |
Place of residence | ||||||
Urban (R) | ||||||
Rural | 1.86** [1.51–2.30] | 1.06 [0.83–1.35] | 1.97** [1.52–2.56] | 1.35 [0.94–1.92] | 1.42** [1.16–1.77] | 1.05 [0.82–1.34] |
Ecological belt | ||||||
Mountain (R) | ||||||
Hill | 0.64** [0.51–0.81] | 0.90 [0.70–1.15] | 0.65** [0.49–0.85] | 0.67* [0.49–0.91] | 0.54** [0.37–0.79] | 0.80 [0.54–1.18] |
Terai | 0.54** [0.43–0.69] | 0.51** [0.37–0.72] | 0.53** [0.40–0.71] | 0.67 [0.43–1.03] | 0.66* [0.46–0.94] | 0.84 [0.53–1.33] |
Household food security status | ||||||
Food secure (R) | ||||||
Mildly food insecure | NA | NA | 1.40** [1.02–1.95] | 0.86 [0.58–1.29] | 1.36** [1.07–1.71] | 0.98 [0.75–1.28] |
Moderately food insecure | NA | NA | 1.68** [1.28–2.21] | 1.07 [0.75–1.53] | 1.76** [1.37–2.26] | 1.10 [0.82–1.47] |
Severely food insecure | NA | NA | 1.93** [1.39–2.67] | 1.17 [0.77–1.77] | 2.10** [1.43–3.12] | 1.32 [0.86–2.01] |
Access of drinking water | ||||||
Unimproved (R) | ||||||
Improved | 0.90 [0.76–1.06] | 1.19 [0.98–1.44] | 0.67 [0.51–0.88] | 0.96 [0.68–1.34] | 0.72 [0.48–1.07] | 0.82 [0.53–1.29] |
Access of toilet | ||||||
Unimproved (R) | ||||||
Improved | 0.50** [0.41–0.61] | 0.83 [0.59–1.17] | 0.65** [0.51–0.81] | 1.27 [0.91–1.77] | 0.49** [0.38–0.62] | 0.64 ** [0.46–0.88] |
Maternal characteristics | ||||||
Age of mother | 1.05* [1.03–1.06] | 0.97 [0.95–0.99] | 1.03* [1.01–1.05] | 0.97 [0.94–1.01] | 1.02* [1.00–1.03] | 0.99 [0.96–1.02] |
Years of schooling of mother | 0.87** [0.85–0.88] | 0.92** [0.89–0.95] | 0.92** [0.89–0.94] | 1.00 [0.65–1.05] | 0.91** [0.89–0.93] | 0.98 [0.95–1.01] |
Number of living children | 1.65** [1.51–1.79] | 1.12 [0.96–1.32] | 1.39** [1.23–1.58] | 1.05 [0.86–1.28] | 1.50** [1.33–1.70] | 1.17 [0.95–1.44] |
Employment | ||||||
No (R) | ||||||
Yes | 1.45** [1.21–1.74] | 0.98 [0.80–1.21] | 1.25 [0.96–1.62] | 0.83 [0.59–1.17] | 1.44** [1.20–1.73] | 1.27* [1.01–1.60] |
Mother BMI | ||||||
less than 18.5/underweight (R) | ||||||
18.5 and above | 1.35** [1.16–1.58] | 1.19 [0.98–1.44] | 1.42** [1.10–1.83] | 1.30 [0.93–1.81] | 1.59** [1.23–2.04] | 1.23 [0.94–1.60] |
Mother anemia | ||||||
No (R) | ||||||
Yes | 1.12 [0.97–1.30] | 1.24* [1.04–1.48] | 1.06 [0.86–1.30] | 0.95 [0.74–1.23] | 1.01 [0.84–1.24] | 0.90 [0.72–1.14] |
Child characteristics | ||||||
Age of child | 2.11** [1.94–2.29] | 2.24** [1.96–2.56] | 1.80** [1.59–2.03] | 2.58** [2.14–3.11] | 1.61** [1.44–1.80] | 1.58** [1.32–1.90] |
Sex of child | ||||||
Boys (R) | ||||||
Girls | 1.05 [0.91–1.21] | 1.00 [0.85–1.17] | 0.92 [0.77–1.10] | 0.88 [0.71–1.10] | 0.98 [0.81–1.20] | 0.95 [0.76–1.17] |
Birth order | 1.17*** [1.13–1.21] | 1.11* [1.02–1.20] | 1.00 [1.00–1.01] | 1.14 [1.03–1.26] | 1.15** [1.09–1.21] | 0.99 [0.89–1.10] |
Size at the time of birth | ||||||
Average or larger (R) | ||||||
Below average | 1.64** [1.37–1.946] | 1.64** [1.34–2.00] | 1.67** [1.29–2.18] | 1.55** [1.19–2.02] | 1.64** [1.31–2.05] | 1.60** [1.25–2.04] |
Anemia | ||||||
No (R) | ||||||
Yes | 1.01 [0.87–1.17] | 1.32** [1.12–1.56] | 1.17 [0.95–1.43] | 1.59** [1.25–2.02] | 1.30** [1.06–1.61] | 1.40** [1.12–1.75] |