Moderate wasting, defined as a weight-for-height z-score (WHZ) between -2 and -3, affects approximately 33 million children worldwide [1] and is associated with a higher risk of death from infectious diseases compared to children without anthropometric deficits [2].

Malnutrition interacts with infections in a vicious cycle whereby it not only increases the risk and severity of infections, but can also be a result of infection [3]. Early diagnosis and treatment of infections in malnourished children is therefore required, in addition to nutritional treatment, to break this cycle. Morbidity is assessed via a combination of subjective and objective findings through history-taking (relying on recall by the caretaker) and a physical examination carried out by a health professional. In addition, measurement of serum acute phase proteins such as C-reactive protein (CRP) and alpha-1 acid glycoprotein (AGP) can provide objective information about inflammation but are rarely measured in low resource settings. Acute phase proteins rise or fall in response to infection or injury but are not specific to any particular disease [4]. Asymptomatic children can have elevated levels of acute phase proteins [5, 6] indicating the presence of subclinical inflammation, due to conditions that are not captured by patient history or physical examination. Inflammation can affect nutrient intake, nutrient absorption and expenditure [7, 8] and may therefore also play a role in effectiveness of nutrient supplements provided to treat malnutrition and nutrient deficiency disease.

Few studies have reported on morbidity in children with moderate wasting or moderate acute malnutrition (MAM) [9–15] and most based only on symptom-recall. Current case definitions of MAM includes children with moderate wasting and/or a mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) between 115 and 125 mm [16]. Furthermore, to our knowledge none have compared morbidity data from maternal recall and physical examination to markers of inflammation in children with MAM.

As part of a nutrition intervention trial, we aimed to describe morbidity and inflammation in children with MAM and to assess to what extent morbidity by maternal recall and physical examination explains the variation in markers of inflammation.

There was a considerable overlap of children who were ill based on maternal recall, physical examination and elevated acute phase proteins (Fig. 1); however, only 10 % of children for CRP and 24 % for AGP were ill according to all three measures. Among the total study population 2 and 10 % had serum CRP >10 mg/l and AGP >1 g/l, respectively, in the absence of any reported illnesses or symptoms according to the mother and/or the nurse (Fig. 1). A total of 338 (20.8 %) children had no identified symptoms or illnesses according to either maternal recall or physical examination whereas only 302 children (19 %) had normal CRP and 181 children (12 %) had normal AGP in the absence of symptoms. Therefore, of asymptomatic children, 10.7 % (n = 36) and 46.5 % (n = 157) had a CRP >10 mg/l and AGP >1 g/l, respectively. Mean serum CRP and AGP were higher in children who were ill according to both mother and nurse compared to those who were ill according to the nurse only (p < 0.05) (Table 3.). These results remained significant if children with a positive malaria test in the absence of fever were not considered to be ill according to the nurse (data not shown).

	% (n)	Mean level of C-reactive protein mg/l (95 % confidence intervals) a,b	Mean α1-acid glycoprotein g/l (95 % confidence intervals) a,b
Not ill	21.6 % (345)	1.24 (1.03–1.5)	0.97 (0.92–1.01)
Ill according to mother only	6.6 % (105)	1.68 (1.2–2.35)	1.13 (1.04–1.23)
Ill according to mother and nurse	31.4 % (503)	3.91 (3.35–4.57)	1.4 (1.35–1.46)
Ill according to nurse only	40.4 % (647)	3.1 (2.71–3.55)	1.25 (1.21–1.29)

^aMeans are geometric means

^bPairwise comparisons between means adjusted for age and sex showed no significant difference for mean CRP level between children who were not ill and those who were ill according to mother only. All other pairwise comparisons were significant (p < 0.05)

In univariate models, history of fever and cough were associated with higher serum AGP and CRP; diarrhoea and vomiting were not. In addition, fever, malaria and skin infections diagnosed by the nurse were associated with higher serum CRP and AGP. Lower respiratory tract infection and ear infection were associated with serum AGP but not CRP (Table 4). Differences in means ranged from 1.4 mg/l for skin infections (p < 0.001) to 2.86 mg/l (p < 0.001) for fever for CRP and from 0.11 g/l for lower respiratory tract infection (p < 0.001) to 0.31 g/l (p < 0.001) for positive malaria test for AGP (Table 4). Children with malaria but no fever had a 2.8 mg/l and 0.3 g/l higher mean CRP and AGP, respectively, than children without malaria or fever (p < 0.001), whereas children with malaria and fever had a 5.9 mg/l and 0.6 g/L higher mean CRP and AGP, compared to children without malaria or fever (p < 0.001). In multivariate models, the association between history of cough and serum CRP was lost and history of vomiting became associated with a lower CRP. Diarrhoea on the day of admission and upper respiratory tract infection became associated with serum AGP and both upper and lower respiratory tract infection became associated with serum CRP (Table 4). The adjusted R² for serum CRP using morbidity data from maternal recall and physical examination was 0.053 and 0.112, respectively (Table 4) and increased to 0.141 if data from maternal recall and physical examination were included in the same model. The adjusted R² for serum AGP using morbidity data from maternal recall and physical examination was 0.103 and 0.152, respectively (Table 4) and increased to 0.186 if data from maternal recall and physical examination were included in the same model.

In this cross-sectional study we have shown that infections and inflammation in children with MAM are common and largely independent of admission criteria. We have also shown that symptoms and illnesses identified by mothers and by nurses during physical examinations are associated with serum APP levels but that morbidity only explains a small amount of variation in APPs and that even children without any identified symptoms can have elevated APP levels.

This study had a number of limitations. Firstly, the data used were baseline data collected for a randomised controlled trial and data collection was thus not specifically designed for this study. As a result we had no control group and have not been able to compare prevalence of infection and inflammation to children without anthropometric deficits in the same setting. Furthermore, inclusion in the study was based on active case finding by community health workers and study staff or based on mother’s initiative and not based on random selection among all children with MAM in catchment area. As such, selection bias cannot be ruled out, which may have led to overestimation of the prevalence of morbidity, since sick children are more likely to have been selected. A further limitation may be the accuracy of lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) diagnosis by nurses as diagnosis has previously been shown to be unreliable other settings [24, 25]. It is worth mentioning also that although the immune response is altered by malnutrition, a recent review on the immune system in malnourished children concluded that the acute phase response appears intact [6] and we therefore believe that CRP and AGP provide useful information about inflammation in children with MAM.

Our study demonstrates several important points. First, overall more than 80 % of children had an infection and/or inflammation. Considering the interaction between infection and nutrition, treatment of infections may therefore be important as part of MAM treatment in this setting. In Burkina Faso MAM treatment consists mainly of supplementary food and routine medication including deworming and Vitamin A and iron folic acid supplementation. Treatment of asymptomtic malaria is not recommended and little emphasis is placed on identification and treatment of infection [26].

Second, information provided by mothers on children’s health status as well as diagnoses made during physical examination appear to be reliable as demonstrated by the association between symptoms and APP levels. Although, as mentioned above there is some concern about reliability of LRTI diagnosis. While data from maternal recall explain less of the variation in APPs than data from physical examinations, both methods are useful and the information they provide is complementary as is also indicated by the higher adjusted R² in the models where data from both sources were included. The two acute phase proteins we measured have different properties: CRP responds to infection quickly and reaches its maximum within 24–48 h and drops shortly after while AGP reaches a maximum concentration after 2–5 days and stays elevated longer [27]. It is therefore not surprising that morbidity data explains more of the variation in AGP than CRP. Furthermore, illnesses reported by mothers could have occurred 14 days in the past by which time APPs could have returned back to normal levels which may partly explain why the R² for models using recall data is lower than that for models using data from physical examinations. That mothers reported less illness than nurses might be in part due to accuracy of recall data being affected by reporting and recall bias [28, 29], perception of an abnormal situation, or tolerance to discomfort [30]. The latter is likely to be a cause of underreporting in a population such as this one where disease is common and even more so if proxy reporting is used as children may start feeling unwell before mothers notice it. In line with this, we found significantly higher mean serum CRP and AGP levels among children who were ill according to both nurses and mothers compared to those ill according nurses only. This may indicate that infections mothers bring to the nurses attention are more severe than those identified by nurses only. 20 % of children had a positive malaria test but no clinical signs or symptoms. While some of these children may have already been successfully treated for malaria, the higher serum CRP and AGP levels in children with a positive RDT without fever indicate a presence of asymptomatic malaria, which has previously been shown to have health consequences [31].

Third, we have shown that, although morbidity was largely independent of admission criteria, a positive RDT not accompanied by fever was more common among children admitted based on MUAC only and, in contrast, lower respiratory tract infections were most common among children admitted based on only low WHZ after adjustment for age. Asymptomatic malaria in children can persist for a long period of time [32] and we have shown that even a positive RDT without fever is associated with a greater mean difference in APPs. It has been suggested that since amino acid composition of APPs differ from that of muscle, the amount of muscle mobilised to make amino acids available for synthesis of APPs may be quite substantial [33]. Asymptomatic malaria may therefore lead to a greater breakdown of muscle than LRTI and have a greater impact on MUAC. In contrast a more acute condition such as LRTI may be associated with lower WHZ resulting from a short term impact of infection on weight due to anorexia and dehydration. Dehydration has been shown to affect WHZ to a greater extent than MUAC [34]. In addition there was also a non significant trend for other conditions, such as malaria accompanied by fever, to be more common in children with low WFH.

Lastly, we have shown that elevated APP levels in children without identified symptoms are not uncommon and that morbidity data collected explained only a small proportion of the variation, as demonstrated by the adjusted R² which was <0.2 in all models, both indicating a presence of subclinical inflammation. We have three possible explanations for the low R²: Firstly, children may have infections not identified by mothers or nurses that might also have contributed to an increase in serum CRP or AGP. Secondly, acute phase proteins may rise during the incubation phase of a disease before clinical symptoms become apparent and serum AGP remains elevated during convalescence after an acute illness [8]. Thirdly, in addition to infection, there a range of other conditions such as environmental enteric dysfunction (EED), recent vaccinations, cooking with biomass fuels and exposure to toxins that may elicit an acute phase response [4, 8]. EED, previously known as environmental enteropathy or tropical enteropathy, might play an important role as it is believed to be highly prevalent in low-and middle income countries [35]. It is a usually asymptomatic condition characterized by inflammation, altered gut structure and function and is associated with stunting in infants and children [35, 36]. It has been hypothesised that EED may lead to systemic inflammation via increased intestinal permeability and microbial translocation [37], and therefore may be one possible cause of unexplained variation in biomarkers although we did not carry out appropriate tests to determine whether children had EED as part of this study.

Infections in children with MAM in this setting are common and, in addition, children have inflammation not explained by symptoms and illnesses identified during patient histories or physical examinations. We recommend further research to define the role of serum APP in the diagnosis and treatment of childhood infections, into causes of this subclinical inflammation and whether it has an impact on nutritional status and success of MAM treatment.